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where E, , and t are the elastic modulus, CTE, and thickness, respectively, of the various layers A more sophisticated model can be found in Ref 34 An example of the low overall CTE that can be obtained using a CIC core is shown in Fig 5720 Unfortunately, the constrained x-y axis expansion results in increased z-axis expansion that can reduce PTH reliability to dangerously low levels, especially in an environment in which the full mil-spec thermal cycle of 55 to +125 C is imposed Consequently, use of polyimide is recommended with CIC cores Because of its high Tg and low CTE below Tg, polyimide imposes much lower strains on the PTH for a given thermal cycle than other dielectrics Constructions utilizing constraining low-CTE metal planes usually use CIC layers in place of ground and power planes in a standard multilayer board.

The same PTH reliability concerns that hold for CIC core boards apply to these PCBs as well PTH reliability can be improved by using polyimide resin and by using CuNiAu or CuNiSn metallization in the PTHs These substrates are easier to manufacture than metal core boards because standard PCB fabrication techniques can be used for the most part Resin material can affect fiber/resin delamination, one of the prerequisites for conductive anodic filament growth Measling occurs at about 260 C for FR-4, but may occur at lower temperatures for boards with more hygroscopic resins 57512 Solder Mask The three major types of solder mask liquid screen-printed, dry film, and liquid photoimageable (LPI) come with different benefits and concerns from a reliability perspective.

The solder mask material should be selected for its compatibility with the heat and solvent characteristics of the assembly process, its capability to provide good conformity over surface features on the PCB, and its ability to tent vias if required Since many of these characteristics are product-specific, only a few general guidelines can be provided here Where tenting of vias is required to keep solder, moisture, or flux from wicking up.

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Cu-Invar-Cu (ground)

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FIGURE 57.19 Examples of alternative construction using Cu-Invar-Cu to achieve low-x-y CTE: (a) metal core (sides A and B may be multilayer boards) and (b) metal plane constructions. (After F. Gray.34)

under components, dry film solder mask should be used. However, excessively thick solder mask, particularly dry film over closely spaced traces, can result in crevices. If the solder mask cannot flow enough to adhere closely to the board, the resulting crevices can entrap contaminants such as flux that can accelerate corrosion later. LPI solder mask provides excellent coverage, resolution, and alignment to other features, but it generally cannot be used to tent vias. IPC-SM-840 defines the performance and qualification requirements for solder mask. 57.5.1.3 Metal Finish. The metal finish on the SMT and TH pads can have an impact on PTH reliability and on the reliability of the solder joints made to these pads. Common metal finishes for solder-mask-over-bare-copper (SMOBC) boards include hot-air solder leveling (HASL or HAL), organic-coated copper (OCC), and electroless NiAu. Galvanically plated CuNiAu and CuNiSn made by another processing route are also available. These finishes provide a solderable finish for later printed circuit assembly. The pros and cons of the various finishes are discussed in turn. Of the common metal finishes, HASL is the only one which can directly reduce reliability of the board. In a typical HASL process, the board receives a severe thermal shock when it is dunked into a bath of molten eutectic Sn-Pb solder. The PTHs can survive only a certain number of solder shocks without failure; this process uses up one of these thermal cycles before the board leaves the fabricator.

20 Coefficient of thermal expansion (10 6/k)

Unconstrained FR-4

0 60

20 60 Temperature ( C)